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Horse Health

Abortion

The normal gestation period of a mare is between elevenand twelve months. Abortion in horses is defined as thedeath and expulsion of the foetus before ten months. Thecauses of abortion are varied but they can be groupedunder general headings.

Foetal infection

The three possible routes of infection are the mother'sbloodstream, through the cervix during pregnancy, or thepresence of infection already in the uterus at the time ofconception. Infection may be caused by fungi, bacteria, orviruses. A virus that is at present causing a great deal ofconcern world-wide is the rhinopneumonitis virus, or virusabortion. This causes a respiratory disease in all horses,male and female, but in the pregnant mare some six toeight weeks after the respiratory head-cold it causesabortion of the foetus. In some countries it has become themost common cause of abortion. The mare will usuallyconceive quite normally the following year and carry thefoal. In some countries a vaccine is available against the disease.

Foetal starvation

The developing foetus depends for its supplies of vital foodmaterial in the first few weeks on the secretions of theuterus and then later on the placenta. These mechanismsmay fail for one reason or another and cut the food supplyfrom the foetus. Death results. It may be due to malnu-trition of the mare, extreme changes in her management,growth of twin foetuses or from hormonal or glandularproblems.

Hormonal deficiencies

Where the mare has been shown to abort because of hor-monal deficiency, she can be given hormone injectionsthroughout the term of a subsequent pregnancy. Seek vet-erinary advice.

In any case of abortion, no matter what you think thecause is, remove other in-contact mares to a separate,empty paddock. Then call your vet to do a postmortem andto take samples for examination. Burn or bury the remainsof the foal and membranes and isolate the stall. The deadfoal's membranes and the uterine fluids from the mare arehighly infectious to other horses if virus abortion was theculprit. Disinfect the general area where the abortion tookplace. Unfortunately, if all the mares have been togetherfor several months the damage is probably done and theother mares are also likely to abort.

Abrasions

An abrasion is where several layers of skin have been takenoff, leaving a weeping or bleeding patch. It does not goright through the hide. Abrasions occur round the back ofthe pastern, round the cannon bone (wire burns) and onthe extensor surfaces of the legs and joints (gravel burns).The materials causing the abrasions are frequently: rope(the tethered horse gets tangled in rope or sometimes it isthe result of stringent methods of breaking in, when a foalis roped up); wire (the horse gets tangled in fences); andgravel (the animal falls when on a gravel road).

The best therapy is hot and cold foments followed by thesurgical removal of tags of tissue that have lost theirblood supply. Apply Socatyl paste (an antibiotic/anti-inflammatory) to the area, and bandage. Change the ban-dage each two days. Once the lesions have stopped leakingserum, they can be allowed to dry out and a topical astrin-gent agent such as mercurochrome or acriflavine can beapplied to the areas twice daily. Do not pick scabs offwounds unless pus is accumulating.

Abscesses

Abscesses can be caused by infection with strangles, dirtyinjections, or foreign bodies. Abscesses in the mouth arefrequently caused by grain, grass seeds or a decayed toothroot. An abscess is effectively present in fistulous withersand poll evil. An abscess is really an accumulation oforganisms producing pus.

Hot foment the area six times daily by holding a warm.wet cloth against the abscess site. This should be done fora few days until the abscess becomes soft and pointed.Once there is an obvious fluid accumulation under the skinsurface, sterilise a razor blade or scalpel blade by holdingit in a flame for thirty seconds. Nick the top of the abscessquickly with the blade and allow the pus to drain out. Ifpossible, enlarge the opening to at least I centimetre indiameter; this will prevent the skin from healing tooquickly. Next, wash out the abscess with 50 per cent per-oxide and water, using a large syringe without a needle.four times daily. Continue to hot foment and massage thearea. After four days, continue to wash out the woundthree times a day with plain water until it heals from theinside out. Do not let the skin edges seal together prema-turely as this leaves a cavity in which the abscess can re-form. If the horse is affected generally, antibiotics shouldbe given.

Accidents

If a horse has had an accident, very calmly keep talking toit, as it is probably in a state of panic. If the horse is offits feet and entangled in wire or rope, hold its head to theground to prevent the animal from standing (sit on thehorse's head if necessary). Remove any obstacles fromaround the horse, and apply a tourniquet or pressure ban-dage to bleeding points. Keep the horse warm and, ifnecessary, contact a vet.

A first-aid box should always be kept in the stables foremergencies.

Actinomycosis

Actinomycosis is a rare bacterial condition in the horse.When an animal is affected, however, areas of the jaw-bone become very swollen, and may burst and dischargepus. The condition can be controlled by antibiotics. Thecondition is caused by organisms entering via tooth sockets.

African Horse Sickness

African horse sickness is a fatal viral disease of horses andis confined to Africa. It can affect the heart, the lungs, orboth. The condition begins with a fever, and the incubationperiod is from two to four weeks. Some horses show slightsymptoms of illness such as loss of appetite, conjunctivitis. laboured breathing and an accelerated pulse, but thecharacteristic symptom is the raised body temperaturewhich reaches 40.5°C in about one to three days. There is no treatment available.

Anaemia

Dietary deficiencies of certain amino acids, proteins, iron,copper and cobalt can all cause anaemia, but worms areprobably the most common cause in horses. Equine infec-tious anaemia (swamp fever) and loss of blood in the gas-trointestinal tract are also causes. Signs of anaemia are palemucous membranes of the mouth and eyes, lethargy, ill-thrift, and poor coat. When treating anaemia it is essentialto first eliminate the cause. Follow this up with iron sup-plementation, and increase the protein level in the diet.This can be done by feeding the horse milk powder at therate of 250 grams per day or soya bean meal, or meatmealor cottonseed meal at the rate of 500 grams per day, andgiving injections of vitamin B complex and folic acid twiceweekly until the horse's health is restored

Aneurism

An aneurism is a dilation in an artery wall. In the horse thisis caused by worm infestation weakening the wall of theartery and allowing it to distend and stretch. The wall maybecome so weakened that it ruptures, causing the animalto bleed to death internally. Alternatively, the wall maybecome thickened due to inflammation caused by the mi-grating larvae. In these cases blood supply can be inter-rupted to a section of intestine or to a limb.

Anthrax

Anthrax is a highly contagious, world-wide bacterial dis-ease characterised by septicaemia. The horse develops anacute colic and fever, and hot swelling may occur in theneck, throat or chest. In other cases, the symptoms are lackof breath with fever, and bloody discharges from the rec-tum. Death occurs in one to two days. The carcass shouldnot be touched by anyone apart from the vet who does thediagnostic postmortem, and must be disposed of by burn-ing. Sudden death after a short, acute illness indicates thepossibility of anthrax. In most countries the Department ofAgriculture must be notified, and the property where thedisease occurs put under strict quarantine. Anthrax isalways fatal, and can easily infect other animals andhumans.

Arthritis

Arthritis is the name given to inflammation of a joint. Inhorses it usually results from an injury, but there can beother causes. In performance horses such as racingthoroughbreds and standardbreds, jumpers and endurancehorses the most common joint affected is the fetlock. Ar-thritis can be either septic or aseptic. When it is septic theinitial symptoms are usually a sudden development of heatand pain, with the joint becoming swollen and tense.Movement is restricted and there is marked lameness. Thejoint appears to be filled with fluid. The horse may have atemperature and the area over the joint feels hot to thetouch when compared to the joints on the other leg. In anaseptic arthritis the injury is usually due to chronic work-load. In these cases the onset of soreness and lameness ismuch slower, perhaps developing over a period of months.One of the initial signs is decreased flexion of the joint. Thejoint area itself becomes enlarged (apple-jointed) and therewill be a concurrent increase in size of visible joint capsules(wind-galls).

Antibiotics are essential treatment for septic arthritis.For both types of arthritis complete rest is essential. Makefrequent cold applications to the part involved, or irrigatewith cold water several times a day. In between. drawingagents such as antiphlogistine packs, epsom salt bandages,or other commercially available packs can be placed on thejoint. Systemic anti-inflammatory treatments such asbutazolidine or cortisone are often helpful in reducing thedegree of inflammation. In cases of open arthritis (openjoint), where there is an opening from the joint to the skin,it is best to seek the advice of a veterinary surgeon.

Artificial insemination

Artificial insemination simply means the artificial introduc-tion of male semen into the genital tract of the female, ascompared with natural insemination. This technique isfeasible in mares. For information contact your veterina-rian. The practice is banned by many breed registries, no-tably in thoroughbreds, to preserve the economics of thehorse-breeding industry.

Azoturia (Tying-up)

The signs of this disease vary from mild to severe. In mildcases, when the horse cools down after exercise it may 'dip'when pressed over the loins or become stiff in either theshoulders or hindquarters or both. In these mild cases thehorse has a shortened stride of either the front or hind legsor both. In severe cases the horse might go only a hundredmetres before all its muscles jam and the horse is unableto move. The muscles over the loins become rock-hard and urinemay be of a port wine colour. Azoturia is extremely pain-ful. It is usually caused by a high-grain diet combined witha low exercise level. The energy from the high-grain dietis stored in the muscles, and finally breaks down to forman acid. This acts on the muscles,-causing the condition.Classic cases are seen in horses fed hard-grain rations sevendays a week, and exercised six days with a day off onSunday. The disease hits them on Monday when they be-gin working (its name used to be 'Monday morning sick-ness or disease'). The horse must be stopped immediately from any workthat it is doing. Do not even try to walk it back to its stall.Warmth is helpful—double-rug the affected animal, or atleast use one rug with a folded blanket or feed sack overthe loins. Treatment consists of neutralising the acidity withintravenous injections, and applying anti-inflammatoryagents. Alkaline solutions can also be given as salinedrenches by stomach tube. It is essential to rest the horse for several days after all symptoms have gone. Eliminate allgrain from the diet. The horse should be brought back intowork gradually, over a protracted period of several weeks.Control of the disease involves working the horse sevendays a week, reducing the high-grain diet, or reducing theoat content of the diet and replacing some of it with corn.Injections of selenium and vitamin E are helpful. Add elec-trolyte preparations to feed or water—these contain alka-line salts to neutralise the acid in the muscles and act as amild diuretic to flush the acid and waste products from themuscles. A horse that has tied-up once is more likely to sufferfrom the problem again.

Back injuries

Back injuries are rarely serious unless the horse has rearedover backwards, is steeplechasing, racing or jumping, inwhich case there is a possibility of fracturing the spine. Ifa horse comes down in a fall, let it lie quietly for severalminutes in case it is merely winded. The animal shouldthen be encouraged to rise.

If there is no sign of attempts to rise, or if the horseappears able to use only its forelegs, it can be concludedthat the back is probably fractured and the horse should bedestroyed. Crushing or severance of the spinal cord pro-duces typical signs of hindquarter paralysis. The tail iscompletely limp and the anus relaxed and open, possiblywith faeces dropping from the passage. In the male thepenis will be relaxed and protruding from the sheath.Definite indications of paralysis are not always present inthe case of fracture of the back. Sometimes the injury is acracked vertebra with insufficient displacement to do anydamage to the spinal cord. In these cases the horse canusually walk awkwardly and box-rest is advised—but yourvet will advise on individual cases.

Muscle soreness over the loins is usually due to mild`tying-up' (AzartiRIA). It is rare for a horse to strain thesemuscles. Additional supportive treatment includes ray-lamps and liniments rubbed into the affected areas.

Sacroiliac ligament strain is evidenced by wasting of themuscles on both sides of the rump. Usually there is a peak-ing at the backline between the points of the hip. The onlysatisfactory treatment is to spell the horse for at leastsixteen weeks.

Saddle-rub is most commonly caused by an ill-fittingsaddle and/or insufficient padding between the saddle andthe horse. Rub the area of the saddle sore with methylatedspirits to dry up and harden the area. If the horse must beused before the wound is treated, purchase a 5-centimetrefoam rubber saddle-pad and cut a hole over the saddlesore. This will allow the horse to be ridden while the saddlesore repairs. Once the sore has healed, use an extra saddle-blanket to prevent recurrence.

Spondylitis (arthritis of the backbone) is more commonin older horses that have been used for work or sport.Sometimes this condition is due to the horse being cast oreven flipping right over in a float or stable. Symptoms ofspondylitis include dipping when mounted or palpatedalong the midline of the back. Treatment includes rubbingin a muscle liniment or warming the area with a ray-lamp.However, better results are usually achieved by using anti-inflammatory analgesic agents such as butazolidine. Chiro-practors and physiotherapists have been involved in treat-ment with varying success rates. The difficulty is the hugemass of muscle to manipulate successfully.

Bandaging the legs

Bandages are used for support when the horse is being worked or floated,or when a wound needs covering. Whether an adhesive bandage or a non-adhesive bandage is used depends on how active the horse is, the region ofthe leg requiring bandaging, and the frequency with which the bandage hasto be changed. It is very difficult (in fact, almost impossible) to bandage thehock without using a self-adhesive bandage. Where dressings need to bechanged daily, it is best not to use self-adhesive bandages because they areexpensive, cannot be re-used and can pull out .hairs quite easily.
When applying bandages to the various parts of the limbs, it is best tocommence by using a wad of cotton-wool from a roll. Wind this once aroundthe affected limb. Start the self-adhesive bandage so that there is at least 3centimetres on the horse's skin, then wind the rest around the cotton-wool.Continue winding the bandage around the leg until the bottom of the wad-ding is reached, finishing off with another 3 centimetres on the skin. In thecase of the fetlock and the knee, it is important to criss-cross to the oppositesides of the joint to get a firm holding. It is vitally important that the rearof the knee is not bandaged, and the bone (accessory carpal bone) leftexposed. Bandaging over this bone will result in a pressure sore which takesa long time to heal.
Whenever restrictions such as bandages are applied to the limbs of ahorse, they should be checked twice a day for the first few days and thendaily to detect any undue swelling. If the limb begins to fill below or abovethe bandage, the bandage should be removed immediately. If possible, thehorse should be walked for exercise to reduce the swelling.

Bee Stings

If possible remove the sting. Apply ammonia, a strong sol-ution of washing soda, or a paste of washing soda. If there are a number of stings, antihistamines can be given by aveterinary surgeon and antibiotic cover is often necessary.

Bleeding

• Nose-bleeding

Nose-bleeding can occur from a knock to the head. Thisshould be suspected if the bleeding is unrelated to exercise,and particularly if it is from one nostril. Tie the horse up,so that its head is in the normal position, and apply coldtowels to the forehead and nose. Horses in hard trainingand reaching the peak of fitness will often bleed a fewdrops (up to a cupful) from one or both nostrils after theyhave finished exercise. This is caused by either a rupture ofa vessel at the top of the nose or, more dangerously, bleed-ing in the lungs. A veterinary surgeon should be consultedafter any such bleeding attacks.

• Leg wounds

The horse has many large blood vessels in the limbs. Whenthese are cut it is best to stop the bleeding by tight pressurebandages and, if necessary, a tourniquet applied above theknee or hock. (The need for a tourniquet is rare, however.)Self-adhesive bandages 7.5 centimetres wide make idealpressure bandages.

Blood counts

The normal blood count of the horse is given in the sectionCaring for the sick horse.

Blood poisoning occurs where organisms enter thebloodstream either from the bowel or by penetratingwounds (for example, abscesses). The signs of bloodpoisoning are lethargy, depressed appetite, sometimes afever, and a darkening of mucous membranes. This con-dition can be fatal unless the horse is treated properly,usually with antibiotics.

Boma disease

Borna disease is an inflammatory disease of the brain. There is fever, paralysis of the pharynx, muscle tremor andlethargy. Paralysis is seen in terminal stages and deathoccurs one to three weeks after signs begin. Mortality isusually 60-70 per cent. The disease has only ever beenrecorded in Germany.

Broken wind

Broken wind or 'heaves' is a chronic respiratory conditioncaused by emphysema of the lungs. Emphysema is a per-sistent over-distension of the air-sacs. As a result of thisdistension the walls separating one sac from another be-come thin and weak and finally rupture. In this way a num-ber of sacs may 'run together' and form a large gap. Thisreduces the area available for the exchange of oxygen. Inmany cases it is the result of violent expiratory efforts suchas coughing. It can also occur after bronchitis or pneu-monia, particularly if the horse is kept in work while it hasa virus. It may be due to feeding dusty food, which bringsabout coughing, or too bulky food, especially if the animalis habitually worked hard immediately after feeding. Theanimals affected are usually good feeders and are often ingood condition. The two main signs of the condition are adouble expiratory effort and a cough. The cough is fairlyfrequent and can be induced by finger pressure over thelarynx. It is long, deep, and hollow and may appear inspasms. In severe cases the animal will exhibit signs whenat rest. In moderate cases animals exhibit the signs onlyafter exercise.

The movements are exaggerated during expiration.There is at first a short normal contraction of the abdomi-nal muscles and after a slight pause a second more pro-longed contraction. There may be a slight discharge fromthe nose. Depending on the degree of damage, some horseswill be useless to the owners. There is no likelihood ofrecovery.

Prevention: Attend to feeding. Avoid dusty feed. Avoidbulky food before exercise. Do not give forced exercise toa horse in soft condition, after feeding or while coughingfrom any cause.

Burns

Burns and scalds are extremely painful and animals willresent anything but the most gentle handling and dressingof the affected parts. All extensive burns and scalds (cover-ing more than 5 per cent of the body surface) should beattended to by a veterinary surgeon at the earliest possiblemoment. The burnt or scalded area must be covered witha clean, dry dressing (for example, gauze, a clean handker-chief or a towel) and a bandage applied to keep it in pos-ition. Never apply oil, grease, flour, soot, baking soda,spirit, tincture of iodine or lysol to the burn or scald.

Where the burn results from a flame, the burned areawill be devoid of hair. Any loose, charred debris can beremoved by gauze soaked in warm, normal saline—one tea-spoonful of salt to 600 millilitres of warm, boiled water. Ifthere is gross dirt or grease around the affected area, soapand warm water may be used before the normal salineswabbing. Alternatively, acriflavine (one part in one thou-sand) may be used in the same way, thus cleansing and6hn1ec'fing the burnt area at the same time. For first aidof trivial burns, use tannic acid, jellies, warm, strong tea oracriflavine (one part in one thousand).

If the burn is caused by corrosive acid, bathe the partwith an alkaline solution which can be made by adding adessertspoonful of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) to600 millilitres of boiled water. Washing soda (sodium car-bonate) may be used in the same strength. If neither ofthese is available, wash the part gently with plenty of warmwater.

If a burn is caused by a corrosive alkali such as quick-lime, brush out any of its remains from the animal's coatand bathe the area with an acid solution. This can be madeby mixing equal parts of vinegar and water. After acids andalkalis have been neutralised the burnt area should betreated with one of the local applications previouslymentioned

Calcium deficiency

If a complete commercial ration is being used, there isno need for the addition of calcium. When high-grain dietsare fed calcium carbonate should be added becausethese are high in phosphorus and low in calcium. Thecalcium : phosphorus ratio should be 1.1:1. A horse suffer-ing from calcium deficiency may sometimes eat manure.

Calf-kneed

The knee is concave at the front like a young calf's knee.Little can be done for this conformation abnormality.

Capped Elbow

Capped elbow is caused by the heel of the front shoetouching the elbow when the horse is lying down with itslegs tucked beneath it. The bone is bruised, and a serious(watery) discharge forms to protect the bone from furthermechanical damage. This appears as a fluid swelling on thepoint of the elbow. As long as the heel of the shoe con-tinues to touch the elbow, the condition will persist, despitetreatment.

Either remove the shoe, or place an Elizabethan collararound the fetlock. Once remedial action has been taken toprevent contact, the elbow can be drained by a veterinarysurgeon and the blemish, provided it has not been presentfor a long period, will disappear.

Carpitis

Carpitis is an inflammation of the knee joint. It is causedby hard performance work such e‘N.zkv.-vax‘R.e.NNO'S'f,or jumping, or by a horse continually knocking a kneeagainst an object. An X-ray may reveal a chip of bone atthe front of the knee. It is common when immature horses are worked hard and long on hard tracks. The causativeagent must be detected and stopped, and the condition canbe controlled with cold packs, antiphlogistine, or by coldhosing. Rest for several weeks is essential.

Caslick's operation

Temporary stitching of the vulva to prevent faecal matterfrom entering the vagina and setting up infection thatwould threaten a pregnancy.

Castration

A male horse can be castrated (gelded) from the age of twomonths, but -the most common age is between eighteenmonths and two years. The modem method for castrationusually involves a general anaesthetic. Local anaestheticcan be used, however, if the horse will stand quietly. Thecastration wounds are usually left open to drain, as themost common problem after castration is swelling and/orinfection. To prevent swelling building up, the horseshould be exercised by lungeing or riding for twenty min-utes twice daily for fourteen days after the operation. The more exercise the horse gets the less possibility there is ofunwanted side effects. After each exercise period the wound should be hosed for five minutes so that it does notattract flies. The horse should be carefully observed for the first three days in case there is any protrusion of bowel orfat through the wound. This is most likely to occur in the first few hours and is more common in standard bred. If it is detected confine the horse, use moistened:1taz: towels on the wound and call the vet urgently.

Choking

Choking can be a problem with horses because the oesoph-agus (gullet. foodpipe) is so long-1.5 metres—and so nar-row. In the heart region it narrows even further. Chokingis usually caused by a piece of carrot, turnip, potato, apple,or by the administration of gelatin capsules containingmedication. Dry food such as corn, cut hay or choppedchaff, swallowed rapidly by a greedy feeder, can pack upin the gullet. The usual signs are difficulty in swallowing orcomplete inability to swallow, profuse salivation and evi-dence of spasm of the food pipe. The horse suddenly ceasesto feed and makes several attempts to swallow or to get ridof the obstruction. There is marked evidence of distress. A veterinary surgeon should be called. If the obstruction is Inthe region of the back of the throat, the vet will attempt :sremove it by using a gag. If the obstruction is further cloy.:the food pipe, a stomach tube can be used to gently pushthe obstruction into the stomach. Sometimes surgery isrequired to free the obstruction.

Colic

The term 'colic' means a set of symptoms that indicatesevere or violent abdominal pain. True colic relates tothose conditions arising in the stomach and intestines.False colic is caused by conditions affecting other abdomi-nal organs, such as calculi (stones) in the bile duct, orureter and acute infections of the bladder or genital organs.Colic is far more common in horses than in any other ani-mal. This can be attributed to the small size of the stomachand its small digestive surface; the inability to vomit orunload the stomach; the great length of the intestines andthe puckerings of the large intestine which allows food crforeign bodies to lodge there; the great range of movementallowed to the intestine within the abdomen; the great fre-quency with which the horse is affected with internal para-sites; and the fact that the horse has to work at the direc-tion of its owner. Colic is more common at night and isfrequently connected with irregular feeding.

Dietary errors such as insufficient supply of water.neglect of regularity in feeding, and long fasts followed bythe allowance of extra large feeds, or cold water are respon-sible for a large number of cases of colic. Preventivemeasures cannot be ignored in stable management. Im-proper food is most likely to cause harm when it is associ-ated with sudden change of diet, imperfect mastication.greedy feeding or excessive quantity. Many foods, such asuncooked barley, corn, mouldy food, badly made mouldyhay and wheat are notoriously indigestible. Overeating, aswhen a horse breaks into a feed shed, is a common cause.

Foreign bodies such as bits of metal, sand or earth willalso cause abdominal pain. Sand is particularly a problemwhere horses are confined to small areas of sandy soil.Sand colic can still occur when horses are fed in feed tinsoff the ground—but the condition is more frequent inhorses fed on the ground.

Water may cause colic if given in large quantities andvery cold to a horse still sweating. Insufficient waterand drinking from shallow, sandy pools can also causeproblems.

Colic can also be caused by heavy work combined withirregular feedings. Many serious cases develop duringhigh-stress work. Working the horse hard immediatelyafter feeding may also cause colic.

Other causes, some of which cannot be prevented evenby good management of the horse, are strangulated her-nias, twisted bowels, defective secretion of digestive juices.lack of muscle tone, stricture of the bowel, wind-suckingand even nervous upsets, such as a long float trip or a badthunderstorm.

The signs of colic can be mild or severe. A horse with amild form of colic may be on its feet, with its neck out-stretched and upper lip curled back. It may look at its sides.paw the ground, yawn frequently (a common indication ofpain), or just be off its food. In more severe cases the horsewill lie on the ground and roll continuously from one sideto the other. The horse will begin to sweat, the mucousmembranes will become darker and the pulse rate/heartrate will exceed 45. Once the heart rate exceeds 70 it in-variably indicates a serious form of colic which may require surgery. Because the causes of colic are so numerousand so varied, it is important to call the vet so that a fullexamination of the horse can commence in order to deter-mine exactly what is causing the colic. If the horse is lyingdown but not rolling, leave it be. If the horse is rolling, getit to its feet and keep it walking until the vet arrives.

One of the most common types of colic is impactioncolic, which occurs when the horse becomes constipated.Constipation is indicated by reduced numbers of droppingsper day, and reduced quantity, with the pebbles being verysmall and hard. The horse should be given a warm branmash with molasses at each feed time until the droppingsbecome soft. Some horses require bran mashes two to threetimes weekly in order to keep their digestive systems flow-ing.

Some hints on preventing colic:

• Have the teeth checked regularly.

• Worm regularly.

• Provide a regular diet and water.

• Don't exercise on a full stomach.

• Let the horse cool off after work before giving it food orwater.

• Adjust the food by consistency of the droppings; if the molasses to the diet.

• Don't feed green food unless the horse is used to it.Check food (especially bales of lucerne hay) for mould.

Constipation

Constipation in newborn foals is quite common and iscalled retained meconium. It can be corrected by admin-istering 30 millilitres of warm, soapy water to the rectumas an enema, and then using a finger to manually rake outthe faeces.

In older horses the condition is evidenced by hard, peb-bly droppings in small quantities, and reduced frequencyof defaecation. It can be corrected using warm bran masheswith molasses, linseed meal, boiled barley, increased brancontent in the diet or 4.5 litres of medicinal paraffin oil. Ifthe oil is administered by lay persons without a stomachtube, care must be taken to give the oil slowly so that itdoes not go into the lungs and cause pneumonia.

Coughing

Coughing can be caused by viruses, allergies to dust or straw (which can be associated with broken wind), growthsin the larynx of the horse (usually in old age), parasites(particularly migrating roundworms) which stimulate thehorse to cough as they are brought up into the larynx forreswallowing, pharyngitis caused by fungi, bacteria andviruses, and bronchopneumonia and pneumonia, both ofwhich are caused by viruses, bacteria or foreign bodiessuch as medications that inadvertently go into the lungsrather than into the food pipe.

Coughing is not a disease on its own, but a symptom ofmany different conditions. In order to eliminate the coughit is important to determine what is causing it. If it orig-inates from an inflammatory condition of the larynx, localcough pastes may have an effect. If the infection is bac-terial, antibiotics will help, but if it is viral little can be doneuntil the horse builds an immunity to the virus. Somecountries now have vaccines against the influenza virus.

All horses with coughs should be rested for one weekafter the cough has gone.

Crib-biting Crib-biting, like wind-sucking and weaving, can become a -Qroblem with stabled horses suffering,boredom.

On the edges of the wall, or any projection in its stall or loosebox; the horse then arches its neck and swallows a quantityof air, at the same time emitting a peculiar characteristicgrunting sound. Unfortunately, as horses are great mimics,other horses in the same stables are likely to acquire thehabit. Young foals have been observed using their mother'shock joints as a source of crib-biting. Chronic cribbers areusually hard to keep in condition; in bad cases this canamount to emaciation. Sometimes crib-biting can be acause of colic. Crib-biting is classified as a vice and gener-ally lowers the horse's value.

Painting the edges of mangers, rails and boxes withunpleasant-tasting chemicals does not usually deter the de-termined crib-biter for long. Muzzles (with bars across thebottom) work in some cases. They enable the horse to pickup grain and to pull at hay, but not to grasp the edge ofthe manger. Once the muzzle is removed, however, thehorse will begin crib-biting again. It is claimed that thehorse is unable to crib-bite unless it has a vacuum in itsmouth, and the use of a hollow bit tends to do away withthe vacuum. Crib-biting horses are sometimes kept success-fully in loose boxes in racing establishments with the aidof electric wires strung 45 centimetres in from the walls ofthe box so that the horse cannot touch any solid object.Wide leather straps or metal chains placed tightly aroundthe horse's throat will prevent the ingestion of air and dim-inish in number the horse's attempts at cribbing. Reducingthe horse's boredom by putting it out to pasture will reducethe incidence of cribbing.

Cryptorchidism

Cryptorchidism, or failure of normal descent of the tes-ticles, is a relatively common condition in horses. One tes-ticle can be involved or both. After the age of twelvemonths it is rare for retained testicles to descend. The con-dition is hereditary. Retention of one or both testicles cancause behavioural problems and the horse may becomedangerous.

In monorchidism, where one testicle descends and theother is retained, the descended testicle should never beremoved without removing the retained testicle. Thereason is that the horse may be sold as a gelding—yet causeserious injury by its unpredictable behaviour.

Dehydration

Dehydration occurs when there is a net deficiency of bodyfluids. It can occur when the horse is losing a lot of fluidsbecause of diarrhoea, or through increased sweating inworking horses. It can also occur where horses fail to drinksufficiently. (This sometimes happens when a horse is sickor working under stress.) Varying degrees of dehydrationwith disturbances of electrolyte metabolism are far morecommon than one would expect. Signs can vary from sub-optimal performance, to the clinically obvious hide-boundappearance seen in severe cases. Dehydration can beidentified by analysis of blood samples.

To prevent dehydration use a commercially availableelectrolyte mix in the horse's food or water every day.Some horses are reluctant to take the electrolytes, so it isbest to add them to the horse's water. Give the water fol-lowing exercise, when the horse is thirsty. As the horsedrinks the water, keep topping it up to dilute the salts. Ifthe horse will not take the electrolytes in food or water—even after adding a sweetener such as molasses—then usea stomach tube. Many trainers of racehorses have themstomach tubed once or twice weekly with electrolytes toprevent dehydration.

To test for dehydration, pinch and lift a fold of skin onthe neck directly in front of the shoulder. The skin shouldimmediately return to its normal position. If it stays in afold for more than three seconds, the horse is dehydrated.

Diarrhoea

In the suckling foal diarrhoea will occur as a naturalphenomenon when the mare comes into season.

In both foals and adult horses diarrhoea may be causedby bacteria, viruses, fungi, the protozoan giardia, nervous-ness, oral antibiotics, electrolyte imbalances, parasites (thisis very common) and dietary changes. Dietary causes in-clude fresh lucerne. grazing on winter oats, bran mashes,molasses and damp feeds. The diarrhoea may be apparentonly four to six times daily, while the horse is apparentlyotherwise normal. On the other hand the diarrhoea may bemore frequent and have a foul smell. This usually is dueto blood and mucous membrane lining from the gut andis called dysentery. It is very serious and requires veterinarytreatment urgently. The diagnosis and treatment of diarrhoea is often verydifficult. Sometimes massive wasting of body tissues can occur before treatment is effective. The diagnosis13E cause of diarrhoea is based on microscopic examinathe faeces for worm parasite eggs and giardia, anc:cultures to locate causative bacteria. Blood counts are helpful in determining electrolyte abnormalities. Diarrhoea.in foals and horses is a condition that requires veterinary attention. In young foals particularly, it can progress to infection of joints and pneumonia.

The treatment of diarrhoea cases depends on the of the disease. The owner should not deprive the 7st ofwater, as this will only increase the possibility of hydration. The diet should be changed to increase the pollard and chaff, creating a bland diet and lucerne. Various treatment regimes under veterinar.

Discharge

A discharge means that there is an area of infection ing. This can be soft tissue (for example, an abscess_ muscle), an embedded foreign body, or decay oft - tooth. It is pointless cleaning the superficial discha rgtbasic cause must be identified and treated.

Drenching

Drenching usually refers to the oral administra:::liquid medications. It is done for the purpose of correction of dehydration or feeding the sick horse.

It is also refer to the administration of these compou:.: -stomach tube. Stomach tubing is the insertion of a _ --through the nostril and into the stomach of the horst is a delicate procedure, for if the tube enters the 11 n medication is administered the horse will die. Storr ing of horses should be left to a veterinary surgeon

Dropped Elbow (Radial parallysts)

In this condition, which is caused by injury to thee ranerve where it passes over the front of the shoulde:animal stands with the knee of the affected leg bent fetlock semi-flexed. .The lameness (paralysis) rapidly worsens, and if itduring a journey the horse may experience great in getting to a stable. The condition can also occur afte:horse has been lying on its side for some periodoperation (damage can be prevented by elevating the shoulder and pushing an inflated tyre-tube. The nerve may also be damaged by a car accident or a 'umfrom another horse.

The animal can be put into slings for the first fewor until it becomes accustomed to the loss of use cf limb. Massage of the shoulder muscle for an hour daily is very helpful; sometimes electrical massage procedures help the muscle retain its tone. Beyond that, you can only wait for natural healing to take place. Ifno improvement after six weeks, euthanasia ma-only choice. Complete healing is a very long-termoften up to six months.

The elbow will also drop, and the leg assumepicture in severe lameness of the foot. Howevercondition, the horse can draw the leg forward and

Dropsy

This is a filling of the head, legs, dependent parts of thechest, the prepuce and belly with fluid. It can occur as anormal syndrome in mares in late pregnancy, but it isusually associated with a heart or circulation problem. If itoccurs in one area (for example, one limb) only, the poorcirculation may be due to infection or tight bandages.

Ear disorders

Horses rarely have trouble with their ears. If there is an earinfection, the horse will carry its head on the side, or holdboth ears in a lop-eared (horizontal) position.

Wind a wad of cotton-wool around the end of yourfinger and clean out the ear canal. If the infection is causedby ear-mites, these will be seen under a magnifying glasson the dirt on the cotton-wool; they are white and their legscan be seen moving. Ear-drops used for dogs and cats aresuitable for use in the horse's ear and will clear out themites. The horse's ear does not need routine cleaning outduring grooming.

Electrolytes

The main electrolytes are sodium, potassium, chloride andbicarbonate ions. These ions are lost in such body fluids assweat, urine, diarrhoea and saliva. Their function is to gen-erate electrical impulses in the muscles of the body.Deficiencies lead to ineffective muscular movements anddehydration

Encephalitis

Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain often associ-ated with meningitis. It is caused by bacteria and virusesand can sometimes be a complication of STRANGLES. Symptoms may range from dullness to head pushing and excite-ment. Suspected cases should be referred to a veterinarysurgeon.

Equine infectious anaemia (Swamp fever)

This is an acute or chronic viral disease of horsestransmitted by biting flies, mosquitoes, or by injection ofminute amounts of blood. It can also be transmitted by theingestion of contaminated material. It is characterised byintermittent fever, loss of weight, progressive weakness,marked depression, and dropsy of the lower parts of thebody. The disease also may exist in a subclinical form, inwhich the animal appears normal.

The disease is found in Europe, Japan, North Americaand Australia. As the virus is present in all the organs,blood, saliva, urine and milk of the horse, contaminationof shared food and water supplies is common. There is nospecific treatment for the disease.

Equine Piroplasmosis

This is a specific disease affecting horses, mules and don-keys, and is caused by the invasion of the red blood cellsby a parasite. The symptoms are a high temperature anda yellow discoloration of the mucous membranes of the eye and mouth which after a few days become deep orange orreddish-brown in colour. There is an irregular intermittentfever reaching 40.5-41°C. The urine may be a deep orangeor reddish-brown colour. The disease can be successfullytreated with drugs.

Euthanasia

Sometimes a horse suffering from an incurable illness orsevere injuries must be put down. Drugs now availableallow a horse to be put down with more dignity than if itwere shot. However, if drugs are not available and the caseis urgent, the horse can be shot with a .22 calibre rifle. Thebullet should be aimed 10-12 centimetres above the eyesin the centre line of the forehead—the gun so angled thatthe bullet passes upwards through the brain to the spinalcord

Eye disorders

• Cataracts

Cataract refers to an opacity which affects the lens of theeye. The lens becomes chalky so that light does not passthrough it. The cataract may be congenital (present in thefoal at birth) or it may be progressive, which means thata small congenital cataract may become more extensive.The condition may be acquired during life as an extensionfrom an eye infection, or it may result from injury. Thereis not yet a successful treatment for cataract in the horse

Fetlock Joint DIsorders

The most common problem with the fetlocks is an arthriticcondition called 'apple-joint'. This is often associated withwindgalls or with puffy swellings at the sideof the joint. Both of these conditions are caused by strainon the joint, usually when young immature horses are usedfor hard work, such as endurance, racing or jumping. Theswelling of the joint and the windgalls are due to arthritiscaused by overextension of the joint. If work continues thejoint will gradually lose flexion, the horse will become soreand consequently lame.

If the horse is young, stop any forced exercise and spellthe horse until three years of age. If the horse is older, restfor four months—but the prognosis is unfavourable longterm, if the same hard work is contemplated. Antiphlo-gistine packs, epsom salts bandages or cold hosing for tenminutes four times daily, will help to reduce the swellingand heat in acute cases. The administration of anti-inflammatory agents (for example, phenylbutazone andcortisone) also is helpful in relieving this condition.

Blistering or pin-firing have very little long-term effect.Once the joints have enlarged and are hard, nothing can bedone to reduce their size. If the horse has been in work andthe joints are cool and not sore on flexion, the prognosis isfavourable.

Other conditions of the fetlock joint, such as fracturedsesamoids, dislocation of the sesamoids, fractures of thelong-bones either side of the joint and deviation of the jointshould all be left to the vet for discussion.

Fever

Fever is a rise in body temperature. The fevered horseusually looks depressed and feels hot, particularly its ears.The normal rectal temperature for an adult horse is37.5-38.5°C. A stubby thick bulb ended thermometer isbest. The thermometer should be shaken down to belownormal temperature level, inserted along the wall of therectum and left in place for one minute. The normal bodytemperature may be higher in animals during pregnancy,parturition, lactation and in the young animal.

Fevers can be caused by various organisms, viruses, toxicproducts, certain chemical agents, heat or sunstroke. A fe-ver usually has three stages: a cold stage or shivering fit, ahot stage, and the decline of the fever. As a rule fever isa protective reaction of the body against invading organ-isms. Providing the fever is mild and not therefore en-dangering the nervous system, the heart or the digestiveorgans, clean stabling and good food alone are satisfactory treatments. The animal should be kept in a well-ventilated,clean box and provided with a comfortable bed. If thehorse is normally rugged, it should have a light-weight rugsufficient to keep it warm without sweating. If it sweatsleave the rug off. There should be a plentiful supply offresh clean drinking water and the diet should be laxativeand easily assimilated. If the fever looks suspiciously likea symptom of a contagious disease, the animal must beisolated. Once temperatures get over 39.4°C veterinaryattention should be sought.

Filled legs

Filled legs refers to swelling in the legs, usually from thecoronet upwards around the cannon bone. It may occur inone leg or all four. Where it occurs in one leg it is usuallydue to a blow or injury. Greasy heel is also a cause. Closeexamination usually reveals a small nick or mark, perhapswhere the horse has struck itself, where a small infectionhas developed. The horse should be lightly worked, thencold hosed and an antiphlogistine or epsom salts bandageplaced on the leg. An epsom salts bandage is made byspreading out a piece of cotton-wool sufficient to cover theaffected area. Lightly sprinkle epsom salts over anddampen. Place around the affected area and bandage over.This should be repeated at least twice daily for three to fourdays. Spray the nick with an antibiotic solution.

Sometimes the hindlegs or all four legs fill overnight, butafter work in the morning the swelling subsides. This maybe associated with high-grain diets or a virus. If the swell-ing in any leg is hot and does not improve with the abovetreatment, seek advice as the horse will need antibiotics.

First aid -box

This should contain the following:

• Twitch

• Wirecutters

• Sharp knife. scissors

• Pliers (for pulling nails from feet)

• 4 adhesive bandages, 7.5 centimetres wide

• 4 conforming bandages, 7.5 centimetres wide

• 1 roll of cotton-wool

• 100 millilitres general antibiotic

• 6 (20 millilitre) syringes and needles, 19 gauge500 grams epsom salts

• 1 packet of antiphlogistine

• 200 millilitres 5 per cent formalinMercurochrome, triple dye

• Antibiotic lotion for topical applicationAntibiotic powder

• Thermometer (thick end bulbed)Peroxide 3%

• Antiseptic wash (e.g. chlorhexidine)

Fistula

This is a weeping wound—such as an open abscess site. Itmay be due to an infected bone, the root of a tooth, or toa foreign body lodged deep in the body (bits of stick, wire,or a nail in the foot). Fistulous withers (infections of thewithers), and poll evil (infections of the poll of the head),also give rise to fistulas. In the case of weeping wounds orfistulas, the source of the problem must be dissected out,for the wound will not heal with irrigation alone. Once thecause is removed, treatment is the same as for abscesses

Flatulence

Anal flatulence in the horse is rarely offensive and is rarely a problem. It is almost always associated with a diet, particularly when the horse goes on to fresh 7.Some horses always break wind when they start.

Flatulent colic may arise from an obstructionbowel leading to a build-up of gas in the stomach_also occur when a hard-fed horse is given suddenlush green grass. New hay, especially if damp. mayexcess gas production. In these cases the animal hastoms similar to those of spasmodic colic but the continuous and the animal frequently crouches but lies down. It will yawn, paw the ground and look ILsides. There are frequent attempts at urination. The ation becomes very frequent, short and only the thearea moves because of pressure on the lungs from ::netended abdomen. A veterinary surgeon should be relieve the gas by stomach tube.

Fly bites

Fly and other insect bites can cause a number of dise in horses, particularly in Africa and South America. Hammcan also become allergic to insect and fly bites. InAlio-tralia, for example, they develop the so-called Queenitch. The bot-fly, although it does not bite the horse. r-- tates by its loud humming. As it circles around seeklay its eggs on the hair, it can annoy horses to the erg that they group together for defence, or else bolt to from it. Flies can annoy horses to such an extent that towmay go off their food or lose weight. Methods of protezraminclude using a fly-bait material around stables and arm.regularly picking up manure to keep yards and stables rv-gienic, locking the horse in a fly-proof area, using drugs, and spraying the horse with a residual aerosoL simple and effective method of protecting horses from .arworry of flies is to provide a darkened stable with hesszbagging hanging in the doorway which the horse can pestthrough to leave the flies outside. Bush flies and the bilim4flies will not normally go into a darkened area.

Flies congregating around the eyes can cause a ciliumconjunctivitis. Flies will also irritarwounds On a horse.

Forging (Over-reaching)

This is a defect of the gait, in which the toe of theovertakes and strikes the bottom of the front foot of torsame side at the moment the front foot is rising. Itcause severe downward cuts to the heels of the front km:,and bruising at the very least.

The front feet should be trimmed short. The hindfeet should be trimmed, leaving the "nallong in the toe: and if still necessary, the shoe on .JEhindfoot should extend beyond the heels by 1-2 oezrre-metres. This increases the rapidity of the breaking overthe forefeet and decreases the rapidity of the breaking oivt-of the hindfeet.

The risk of injury can be further reduced by putting 'xiboots on the front feet whenever the horse is work&

Founder

A common name for laminitis (fever of the foot).

Fractures

The term 'fracture' is given to the breaking of a bent'cartilage. Criticism is often made in the press andpublic if a horse that breaks its leg is destroyed. I 7. -L'ehorse, with few exceptions. these cases are incurable sense that the animal will, if treated, be unfit or unsafe -2rwork. Unless it can be used for breeding purposes it ca.n:_-iarepay the owner the cost of the treatment incurred. 07.t.the problems in treating fractures of major support in the horse is its sheer size. The horse is difficult and sometimes unwilling to be restrained during both the operations and subsequent convalescence.

Fracture is often caused by a kick from another horse.Or the animal may fall on its muzzle and fracture the lowerjaw, or base of the skull or neck. Jumping may result infracture of the legs, spine or pelvis. Spinal fracture canoccur when the animal is cast for surgery. Struggling dur-ing recovery can result in fractured limbs. Horses whilelungeing have fallen on their head and fractured theirneck. Spontaneous fracture of the legs, vertebrae of theback, or the shoulder, can all occur even at slow work. Itcan occur as a result of muscular inco-ordination and is themost probable explanation of these spontaneous fractureswhen they occur.

Sometimes a distinct crack is heard. Great lameness isapparent immediately and there may be excessive mobilityor deformity of the part. Grating or grinding may be felton movement of the area. Inability to bear weight isstrongly suggestive of fracture, but not conclusive. Muscu-lar twitching may be present and patchy sweating mayoccur. Pain is usually present.

In cases involving the nose there is usually deformity andhaemorrhage and breathing may be noisy because ofobstruction of the nasal passages.

Fractures of the ribs may cause paralysis of a limb and,if complicated by a punctured chest wall, may allow air topass to and fro from the chest.

In cases of fracture of the skull (sometimes caused byrearing up in a stall) haemorrhage from the ear is common.If the fracture is severe, haemorrhage may occur into thebrain causing death. If fractures occur behind the mid-section of the neck, paralysis of the diaphragm may occur.

Fractures of the spine cause paralysis and inability toraise the hindquarters.

In fracture of the limbs with displacement, there will beshortening of the limb.

The diagnosis of a fracture may be quite easy or verydifficult. A major fracture of a long bone is easy, but a splitpastern, pelvic fracture, and fractures of minor bones aredifficult. When in doubt, X-rays are advised. Fractures arealways a serious affliction and it is best to consult a vet fordiagnosis and available treatment, if any

The action of excessive cold on the skin may produce frost-bite, a condition resembling a burn. Horses are capable of withstanding very cold weather without suffering, as longas they are well fed and are allowed to grow their naturalprotective coat of long hair. Minor forms of frostbite canoccur on the lower legs, particularly if the animal is forcedto stand in mud and water in cold weather. The wet, coldconditions can cause death of the surface cells of the skinand damage to the deeper layers. As in burns, dilation ofthe small blood vessels of the skin occurs followed by ooz-ing of fluid through their walls into the surrounding spaces.This results in the skin becoming swollen and painful.Sometimes the affected area may be the size of a matchbox.The condition is called mud fever.

To prevent problems, do not wash the horse's legs inwintertime but dry the legs thoroughly without delay. Ifwinter pasturing the horse, avoid ground that easily be-comes waterlogged. Always make sure that animals getsufficient food to keep them in good general conditionthroughout the winter.

Galls and Saddle Sores

Girth galls and saddle sores are eroded areas of skin whichcan eventually die and slough out, leaving a nasty opensore. They are caused by constant pressure from ill-fittinggear.

Predisposing causes include:

• Low withers, allowing the saddle to be displaced forwards.High withers, which are apt to be compressed by thepommel (front arch) of the saddle. Narrow chest, making it difficult to tighten the girth,sufficiently to prevent the saddle moving.

• Poor condition, causing the skin to be severely compressedbetween the gear and protruding bones.

• Excess condition, causing saddle and girth to move about.Faulty construction of the saddle, lumps in the stuffing orrips in the lining. Rough dirty girths.

• An awkward or tired rider, who rolls about or sitslopsidedly.

• Walking in hilly country, causing movement of the saddle.Ill-balanced pack saddles.

• Sweating, or the skin being wet from rain.

Galls may sometimes be prevented by leaving the saddleon for about half an hour after the horse finishes work toallow the blood to return gradually to the squashed vesselsand thus prevent their rupture (haematoma) from suddenforcible distension. Gradual return of blood without rup-ture of vessels will still allow fluid through the bruisedvessels into the subcutaneous tissues. Galls should betreated first with cold water and astringent lotions to pre-vent further distension, and afterwards with moist heat andmassage to promote absorption of the fluid.

Once a gall or rub does appear, the horse must not beworked until the sore is completely healed. Spray the areawith acriflavine, triple dye, mercurochrome or an antibioticsolution. Commercial sprays are available. Determine thecause of the injury and if necessary adjust the gear. Thickfoam saddle pads and sheepskin girth-covers are good in-surance against recurrence.

Gelding

A gelding is a desexed male horse.

Glanders

Glanders is a highly contagious disease of the lymphaticsystem caused by bacteria. It causes nodule development,ulcerations and degeneration in the respiratory passages orin the skin. It is a very difficult disease to treat, and requiresveterinary attention. Australia and New Zealand are freeof the disease.

Infection be exercised in handling diseased animals, for example, atpostmortems.

In horses, mules, and donkeys, infection can result fromthe inhalation of particles of nasal discharge floating in theatmosphere of the stables. The most frequent source is in-gestion of the organism in water or food that has becomecontaminated with nasal discharge through the medium ofmangers, nosebags, buckets and waterers. Sponges, ragsand other grooming cloths also commonly convey thedisease directly from nose to nose.

The incubation period can vary from a few days tomonths. The signs of the disease present themselves in twoforms:

Glanders form (localised in the respiratory pass-ages.) Discharge from one or both nostrils of a stickynature, snuffling breathing, ulcerations on the nasal mu-cous membranes, hard lumps in the glands under the jawon the side on which nasal symptoms are apparent. Vari-able amount of fever. In acute cases, the whole face maybecome swollen, and the respirations of a characteristicwheezing, snuffling or snoring type. While the symptoms ofnasal glanders are quite unmistakable, they should bedifferentiated from other similar disease.

Farcy form (nodule formation in the lymphatics of thelegs, head, neck or other parts) Nodules or 'buds' andulcers along their course. The ulcers do not show any tend-ency to heal. Both glanders and farcy can occur together.

In the case of an outbreak, destroy all affected animalsas the disease is to all intents and purposes incurable. Dis-pose of carcasses (burn or bury). Other animals on theproperty should be isolated, as should in-contact animalson farms either side of the diseased animals. Call the vet.

Grass Sickness

Grass sickness is a very well-known disease in Scotlandwhere it occurs year by year in epidemic form. Sporadiccases occur in England and Sweden, but most othercountries are free of the disease. In Scotland it affects allbreeds and any age group except suckling foals. The dis-ease was originally thought to come from grass, particularlyin horses having access to grass in the late spring afterhaving been housed and fed on hard feed during the win-ter, but more recent opinion is that it is caused by a virus.Grass sickness is almost invariably fatal, as it producesnon-reversible paralysis of the entire alimentary tract. Thevery rare cases that do survive would generally be better offdead as suffering is extreme.

Greasy Heel

Greasy heel is a dermatitis of the back of the pastern, andis particularly prevalent in damp conditions. The skin isinflamed and has a pussy discharge which forms a scab.Often horizontal cracks in the skin occur. The conditioncan become so painful that lameness occurs. Horses withwhite or pale-coloured hair in the pastern region are moresusceptible, as are horses that have had the feather cutfrom the fetlock, allowing water to run down the back ofthe pastern rather than drip off the feather.

Treatment is to ensure that the pasterns are dry all thetime. Wash the affected legs down with an antibacterialsoap or shampoo to remove excess exudate, towel drygently, then apply mercurochrome, acriflavine or triple dyetwice daily to the area. If this fails, an antibiotic, antifungalcortisone cream should be applied three times daily afterthorough washing and drying.

Haernatoma

A haematoma is a soft, often painless swelling filled wit]blood. It can be caused by a kick, or by running into a:object. It is best to confine the horse to a stable for ten day.iso that the ruptured vessel wall has time to repair. If itin an area that will allow a firm bandage, this will reduc.the eventual size of the haematoma.

Most haematomas will eventually disappear of their owaccord without leaving a blemish. If drainage of an especially large haematoma is desired, let it settle for ten dayfirst. Drainage may be done under surgical asepsis, otherwise the haematoma will easily become infected.

Harvest mites

The larval form of the harvest, mite is found in 'grass, ha:and other fodder. When present on the skin in protectelparts such as the heels and back of the fetlock, they produce marked skin irritation and often play some partgiving rise to cracked heels or the so-called heel bug. The:can cause irritations of the mane and tail to form a dermatitis. This causes constant rubbing and loss of hair from thmane and the root of the tail.

Head shaking

This condition is sometimes met with in riding horses, making them uncontrollable and extremely dangerous to rideIt should not be confused with head shaking as an attempto escape from the pain inflicted on the mouth by a heavyhanded rider. Irritation from ear mites, a badly fitting biltoo tight a throat latch or a sinus infection can all cause thproblem.

Heat-stroke

Heat-stroke usually occurs on extremely hot, humid dayin horses left to stand in the sun unprotected. Workinanimals may also suffer heat exhaustion, but usually lesseverely. Heat-stroke is usually rapid in onset.

The symptoms are staggering, coma, laboured breathing, slow anirregular pulse and usually a dry skin (dehydration). Rectatemperatures may reach 41.1°C or higher. Emergencytreatment includes reducing body temperature by gettin;the horse into the shade (an improvised shelter will do)spraying it with water, giving cold water enemas and applying cold packs to the head.

Veterinary attention is essential. Further treatment to combat shock involves adminis-tering saline or electrolyte intravenous drips. To help pre-vent laminitis, the feet should be immersed in cold water.Full recovery will take seven days of complete rest.

Hock disorders Bog spavin

Bog spavin is a soft distension of the joint membrane whichis filled with joint fluid. It is most common in young ani-mals or in those with more upright or straight legs. It is alsomore common in animals in which great strain is thrownupon the hocks (such as entire horses, aged stallions andbreeding mares).

In recent acute cases the usual symptoms are heat, painand marked lameness. Usually, however, the swelling iscold, painless, and fluctuating on pressure, and lameness israre. Animals affected will commonly work well through-out their life without treatment and may experience fewproblems. In acute cases, cold applications with astringentlotions and massage are indicated. Provided there is nolameness or heat it is best left alone.

Bone spavin is the name given to a bone enlargement onthe lower and inner aspect of the hock. It is regarded as ahereditary disease. Conformation plays a large part. Whilst it may affect any hock, it is morelikely to occur in hocks which when viewed from in frontappear narrower or to taper towards the shank—and lesslikely in square hocks. Defective conformation also in-cludes 'small' hocks, `tied-in' hocks, 'sickle-shaped' hocks,and 'cow' hocks. These conformations constitute weak-nesses, rendering the joint liable to inflammation under thestress of work.

Lameness is always most marked on starting after rest,but diminishes with exercise and in some instances disap-pears. The horse takes a short stride with the affected leg,the hock is not flexed normally, and as a result the toe ofthe shoe is frequently worn. Turning the horse in a smallcircle with the lame leg outside increases the lameness andthe animal has a jerky way of taking the foot off theground, possibly through increased pain when the joint isextended. Forced flexion of the joint will increase thelameness.

Hold the affected leg up in flexion for a minute or twoand then release it and move the horse off. If the horse islame from spavin there may be great aggravation of thelameness. It should be remembered that the same resultwill follow from sprained tendons, or any lameness at orbelow the hock.

In most instances the treatment for horses under twelveyears of age is favourable—but not so favourable beyondthis age. The best method of treatment is to pin-fire theaffected area and apply a red mercurial blister into thepunctures and around the whole enlargement. Repeat theblistering in about a month. By the end of the secondmonth the animal should be better with no apparent lame-ness. If not, re-apply the blister.

This condition is similar to capped elbow in that it iscaused by a physical bruising of the bone of the hock. Itis usually caused by the horse kicking its stable or floatdoors. This can be prevented by building a barrier in thestable or float that is about 60 centimetres wide at theheight of the horse's buttocks. A wooden or pipe rail willdo the job. The condition will resolve itself (if not of longstanding) once physical contact stops, although the cure may be hastened by drainage of the area.

This is the name given to a swelling, as a result of a sprain,which is situated about a hand's breadth below the pointof the hock towards the inner side. It is seen in all breeds,but more commonly in harness and riding horses.

A frequent cause is landing on wet and slippery groundafter jumping, and sliding along. Pulling horses up quicklyon to their haunches or putting young horses at jumps tooearly are all predisposing causes. Bad conformation such as`sickle-shaped' hocks or `tied-in' hocks may predispose.Lameness may be present immediately after the accident.In the stable the leg is 'favoured', with the heel raised andresting on the toe of the shoe. If made to move, the horseis inclined to go 'on its toes'.

If the horse is not lame, treatment is not advisable. Ifthere is lameness and swelling, the treatment advocated forsprained tendons should be followed. A wedge-heeled shoeis useful in the early stages. Sometimes lungeing four orfive times a week over a low wall or pole is helpful. Thejump is increased by a few centimetres each day till itreaches 1.2 metres.

This is the name given when there is no bony outgrowthas in bone spavin, but only an arthritis. The difference be-tween this and bone spavin is that with occult spavin thelameness is continuous and does not diminish with exer-cise. In most cases the lameness becomes more pronouncedwith exercise.

The behaviour of the lame leg when turning, wearing ofthe shoe at the toe, dropping of the quarter on the lameside and all other symptoms, are present as in bone spavin.There is no appreciable enlargement.

When this cause of lameness is diagnosed, line-firingaround the whole of the joint (but excluding the front ofthe bend of the joint) is necessary followed by rest for sixto eight months. The prognosis, even with treatment, isunfavourable.

In this condition one or both of the hindlegs are lifted inan exaggerated movement caused by over flexion of thehock. The cause of the disease is unknown, but it is thoughtthat nervous diseases or degeneration of the sciatic nerveplay a major role. Sometimes the condition occurs follow-ing damage to tendons as they pass over the nerves. Ad-hesions develop which interfere with the nerve. The con-dition can be variable ranging from very mild flexion at thewalk to a marked jerking of the foot toward the abdomen.In most cases the condition is exaggerated when the horseis turning. Any breed may be affected. Mild cases do nothinder the horse's usefulness

Surgery to remove a section of muscle tendon is the bestthat can be done and gives moderate success.Thorough

This is a swelling at the rear of the hindleg just above thepoint of the hock and about 5 centimetres in front of theAchilles tendon. When pressed on one side with a finger,it will bulge out on the other side.

It is often present in young horses that have not done anywork. Straight hocks tend to favour distension by allowingrelaxation of the sheath around the tendons. Horses thatare pulled up suddenly from galloping (especially in softsoil) or those that rear or kick violently are predisposed. Inrecently injured cases the area is hot, tense and painful.Usually, however, as in bog spavin the area is cold and nottender to touch. As the membrane becomes distended itbulges upwards and is evident on the inner aspect.

In acute cases cooling astringent applications are best,followed by pressure bandages, which should be appliedmost carefully, a layer of cotton-wool being moulded during the progression of the horse. Lameness may be con-tinuous or intermittent. It is governed a great deal by thepace of the animal, being very noticeable at one pace andnot at another—for example, in splint lameness the animalmay walk soundly but trot lame. Exercise may increase ordecrease the symptoms. In most instances of muscle injurythe lameness becomes less during exercise but returns afterthe animal has cooled off. In an animal lame from occultspavin the lameness is almost always continuous. Lamenessarising from acute arthritis is constant. A horse lame frombone disease or a strained tendon may merely appear to bestepping carefully.

When a horse becomes lame three things have to bedetermined: Which leg is it, or is more than one involved?Where is the seat of lameness? What is the cause of thelameness?

Lameness in the horse is such a vast subject and requiressuch expert knowledge in diagnosis and treatment that it isfar outside the scope of this book. In fact, there are wholebooks written on lameness in the horse. By all means exam-ine the horse yourself and if you can locate a swelling inthe tendon, an abscess in the foot, a nail in the sole, thrushor other infection, or swelling of the fetlock joint, or seedytoe, well and good. But beyond those common ailments itis best to seek the advice of a good equine veterinarian.

Infections

Infections in the newborn foal, usually bacterial in origin,frequently involve the joints. Such infections (navel-ill,joint-ill) are sudden in onset—the foal goes off suck, is dulland dejected and has a high temperature, 40-41°C. Oftenpneumonia develops, characterised by increased respirat-ory rate and even respiratory distress. Some cases showabdominal pain and a degree of diarrhoea. Many of thesecases die very quickly unless antibiotic therapy is institutedvery early. Once the foal's temperature drops below nor-mal, treatment is rarely of any value.

Early sign of a cold — a slight purulent (pussy) dischargefrom the nose.

Infections in horses can be caused by viruses, bacteria,fungi or protozoa. They can be insect-transmitted ortransmitted from one horse to the other directly by droplets(by coughing or sneezing). A generalised infection isusually indicated by a rise in temperature, loss of appetite,lethargy and usually some other symptoms such asdiarrhoea, pussy discharge from the nose, or coughing.

A localised infection is indicated by local swelling, heatand pain—for example, infection following a splinter underthe skin or a nail in the foot. In all cases of infection it isbest to consult a veterinary surgeon unless you knowexactly what is causing the problem.

Infertility in the Mare

Infertility has a number of causes, one of the most common being failure to cycle. This may be merely tha: 11wrong time of the year—most mares cycle naturall-v .amtlate spring to the end of summer, with a peak ai MEE-summer. Sometimes failure to cycle is a behavioural lem which can be solved by putting the mare with otr=.cycling mares. Sometimes it is a hormonal problem may be solved by the injection of artificial hormon. So=mares are silent cyclers, giving no indication that theein season unless they are put out with a stallionpaddock-served. The stallion can detect cycling.

If the mare is cycling but keeps returning for may have an infection in the womb, the stallion7nry infertile, or a hormonal problem may be causini-abortion instead of allowing implantation. Infecti.::probably the most common cause of infertility inmares, particularly in wind-sucking mares which in through the vulVa when they gallop, or in olde:with retracted anuses which allow faecal matter 1.:into the vulva. In both instances the mares can bewith antibiotics and the vulva sutured (Caslick's c ation).

Infectious diseases

In most of the developed countries of the world, the mostimportant infectious disease of horses are the influenzaviruses which cause upper respiratory tract infections andviral abortion. Strangles is also highly contagious. Thereare many other infectious diseases, some of which are par-ticularly prevalent in Third World countries. For infor-mation about these diseases, it is best to contact yourveterinary surgeon.

Jaundice (Ectems)

Yellowish discoloration of the conjunctiva, the mucus membranes of the mouth and in the female the vulvathe common signs of jaundice. The urine nearly contains bile, giving it a yellow to orange colour. Jais seen in cases of equine piroplasmosis, dice in foals, infectious equine anaemia, protozoa:viral diseases, chronic copper poisoning, phenothpoisoning, pasturing on rape or other poisonous plan:the bites of some snakes. Other symptoms such as le:fever, loss of appetite and discomfort may occur dep.:-on the disease causing the jaundice.

The treatment of jaundice is dependent on the condition always requires veterinary attention.

Kidney disease (Nephritis)

Kidney disease is very rare in the horse. Horseoften mistakenly call 'tying-up' or mild azoturia,disease. The muscles overlying the kidneys are some of first to be affected with the 'tying-up' syndrome. M 1--trainers give the horse a diuretic ball when they think i: an inflammation of the kidneys. This tends to clear -±1-condition and relieve the soreness in the back simplycause it allows the muscles to be flushed out by thecreased water intake caused by the administration cfdiuretic ball.

True kidney disease is very rare but may be cause chemical poisons such as mercury, arsenic, copper.ticides and carbon tetrachloride. Substances toxickidneys are also produced during azoturia. Treatme:pends on isolating the cause. Usually the horse I_sufficient functional tissue to keep it alive but secretesvolumes of poorly concentrated urine and remains adoer' for life.

`Flooding of the box', a condition in which the hoturinates frequently and drinks copious quantities of watc-is called water diabetes, and is caused by a deficiency ofhormone which controls fluid retention. Injectionsavailable to supplement this deficiency and should beunder veterinary supervision. It is not a kidney

Lameness

Lameness is any condition that affects one or more during the progression of the horse. Lameness may be con-tinuous or intermittent. It is governed a great deal by thepace of the animal, being very noticeable at one pace andnot at another—for example, in splint lameness the animalmay walk soundly but trot lame. Exercise may increase ordecrease the symptoms. In most instances of muscle injurythe lameness becomes less during exercise but returns afterthe animal has cooled off. In an animal lame from occultspavin the lameness is almost always continuous. Lamenessarising from acute arthritis is constant. A horse lame frombone disease or a strained tendon may merely appear to bestepping carefully.

When a horse becomes lame three things have to bedetermined: Which leg is it, or is more than one involved?Where is the seat of lameness? What is the cause of the lameness?

Lameness in the horse is such a vast subject and requiressuch expert knowledge in diagnosis and treatment that it isfar outside the scope of this book. In fact, there are wholebooks written on lameness in the horse. By all means exam-ine the horse yourself and if you can locate a swelling inthe tendon, an abscess in the foot, a nail in the sole, thrushor other infection, or swelling of the fetlock joint, or seedytoe, well and good. But beyond those common ailments itis best to seek the advice of a good equine veterinarian.

Lung conditions

The most common conditions affecting the lungs are pneu-monia and bronchopneumonia, which are inflammatoryconditions caused by a virus or bacteria, by fluid intro-duced during drenching, or by heavy infestation with largeroundworms. Thesigns are heavy breathing and sometimes a cough and nasaldischarge. Pneumonia is always serious and should betreated quickly with antibiotics.

Pleurisy is another inflammatory condition involving thepleural membrane which covers the lungs and lines thechest cavity. It is very painful, again very serious, andshould be treated with antibiotics. It generally occurs with,or after, pneumonia. In both of these diseases the earliestsymptoms are rapid and shallow respirations, fever, loss ofappetite and dullness. The animal is not inclined to move.

The horse should be kept warm, rugged and put in undershelter in a loose box and allowed plenty of fresh air. In-halation of Friars Balsam or Vicks VapoRub are useful. Adab of such an ointment can be placed just inside the nos-trils of the horse. An old remedy for relief of respiratorydistress is to rub mustard paste on to the chest: add one-third of a cup of mustard to 4 cups of lard, mix, and rubthe paste over the chest walls for two minutes.

Maggots

Maggots are the larval stages of flies. They sometimes in-vade wounds, causing fly-strike. An infested wound shouldbe cleaned up using a hose and any maggots physicallyremoved. If there are sinuses hiding the maggots, an insec-ticidal powder can be applied to the wound. Although theidea turns most people's stomachs, maggots rarely causemuch damage to a wound—rather they tend to clean upany debris (that is, dead or decaying tissue). The main riskis that they may introduce bacterial infection. Prevent theirappearance by the use of fly repellants

Malnutrition

A healthy horse is one kept in a slim condition with the ribswell covered—overweight horses are always in danger ofsuffering laminitis (founder). Horses in poor condition areusually suffering from simple malnutrition. Horses arelarge and expensive to keep and many people cut cornerson feeding. (Other factors contributing to poor conditionmay be worms, bad teeth, cold weather, or an underlyingdisease problem.

Manure eating

This can be due to a vitamin/mineral deficiency in whichcase it is called 'pica' . Place alump of rock salt in the feed tin and if necessary make clayavailable. Clay is a good source of calcium and is palatableto horses.

It can also be a 'vice' or due to a dietary imbalance.Make sure the diet is balanced and adequate in quantity.

Mouth Disorder

• Dry mouth

Dry mouth is a condition where the mucous membranesbecome very dry due to lack of saliva production. This isseen in cases of atropine poisoning (atropine is the activeingredient in Belladonna—an old remedy included incough pastes). In other cases there is no apparent cause. Inthe case of steeplechasers or polo ponies which suffer drymouth because of excitement, the administration of 225grams of glucose in warm water in the last meal beforeracing or playing polo is advisable. An abnormal desire forwater is seen in fever, water diabetes, and certain forms ofgastritis, enteritis and kidney disease. Fever may causehorses to stand over water, just playing with it with theirlips without actually drinking.

A gag locks the mouth open for examination of the mouthor teeth treatment.

Glossitis is fairly common in the horse. The causes includedirect injuries, reaction to irritant substances (biting at blis ters applied to the legs, licking at chemicals), foreign bodies(grass seeds, splinters) in the tongue, irregularities of theteeth causing the horse to bite its tongue, and carelesshandling of the tongue during the process of rasping teethor paste worming. Bits may also cause serious wounds.

In mild cases of glossitis apply a simple antisepticmouth-wash, such as a 3 per cent solution of boric acid,and feed a diet of boiled porridge gruel and milk. Use alarge disposable syringe without a needle to apply themouth-wash. When the tongue is swollen, repeated cold-water irrigation will help. Some horses will tolerateirrigation with a slow-running hose.

• Lampas

This is a swelling of the soft palate just behind the incisorteeth. It is usually due to an inflammation of the gums inthe young horse, when shedding the temporary or milkteeth. In the majority of cases the swelling will subsidewithout medical treatment. It is a fallacy that lampas willaffect the health of the horse.

In a parrot mouth the upper incisor teeth overlap the lowerincisors.

These are congenital deformities. In parrot mouth the up-per incisor teeth overlap the lower, and in undershot jawthe lower incisors overlap the top incisors. Such animalshave difficulty in feeding. Bad cases may be unable to grazeand hand feeding will be necessary.

• Quidding

A horse is said to be quidding when its food is rolled andtwisted about in the mouth and finally ejected into themanger as a bolus. In most cases it is due to dentalirregularities and can be readily fixed by a competentperson 'floating' (rasping) the teeth.

• Shear mouth

Shear mouth is a condition in which the upper and lowermolars overlap like the blades of shears. It is usually seenin old horses. Treatment is not satisfactory. It is usually dueto irregularities in wear and age changes involving theshape of the lower jaw

Nail prick

Sometimes when horses are being shod, the farrier mayplace a nail too near to the inner part of the wall and thesensitive tissues. In such a case the nail should be with-drawn immediately and the tract disinfected with tinctureof iodine. If the nail enters the inner part of the wall it cancause a painful wound which can last a long time. In mostinstances, however, soaking in a bucket of warm water(with four tablespoons of epsom salts added) four or fivetimes a day for a few days relieves the pain.

Guttural pouch

The guttural pouch is a blind sac on either sidethroat of the horse. It is a distension of the Eustachian tube—its function is unknown.

They are quite susceptible to infection introducedway of the Eustachian tubes, usually being the aftermatof strangles or other respiratory disease. There is a clar itoim nasal discharge, which appears only during feeding clwhen the head is lowered to eat from the ground, or to taithe bit, or during exercise. There may be interference wswallowing and respiration, and swelling at the base of 'Lbear behind the jaw bone. Treatment is surgical. Call th rm veterinary surgeon.

The other problem affecting the guttural pouches is rpmpanitis (filled with air). It is found in foals or horses upone year. It results from a congenital defect which foa one-way valve resulting in the pouches inflating. Signare obvious. The area below the ear is distended and soft likeballoon. Treatment is surgical.

Nasal discharges

A slight watery nasal discharge can be quite normal,merely a reaction to dust, but excessive watery dischargecan indicate early viral infection. This is generally ac-companied by a dull eye, loss of appetite, a slight fever anda cough. Pussy discharges from the nose indicate advancedviral infections, head colds caused by influenza viruses, andbacterial infections such as glanders and strangles. Pussydischarges can also indicate pneumonia or bronchial pneu-monia. A foul-smelling discharge from the nose indicates decaying roots of teeth, or possibly a tumour in the r.a,passages. If the discharge is watery, or slightly pussy.'-the horse is bright, is eating and does not seem to be sev-erally affected by the condition, there is no need for ala=

Keep the horse warm and give plenty of fresh feed. Wipe the nostrils out regularly, and apply some Balsam or Vicks VapoRub inside the nostrils. Injection 500 milligrams of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) daily are as helpful. If the horse is coughing, it may be relieved after.applying to the back of the tongue one of the availab..tcough pastes.

However, if the nasal discharge becomes copious. thehorse has a temperature higher than 39.4°C, or is off itsfeed, then the vet should be called.

Navieular disease

Not all horses affected with navicular disease are in painand not all will go lame, but in most cases attention isdrawn to the problem because the horse is lame. Usuallythe horse first goes lame very suddenly; the lameness maydisappear or settle down to a slight lameness. The horsemay be uneasy and restless, adopting a slight rocking ac-tion. As time goes on it points its forefeet; if both feet areaffected the horse will point first one foot and then theother. Navicular disease rarely affects the hindfeet. If thehorse is taken out and warmed up by exercise, the lamenesswill probably be relieved; but if the horse is left to cool offand then moved again when cold, the lameness will re-appear. For the first few steps it will be more severe. Ob-serve the action—flexion and extension of the lower pasternand the foot will be diminished, and the toe of the shoemay show wear as the horse puts its toes down first. Thissolid, block-like action of the foot will increase as the dis-ease progresses. The stride becomes shorter, and as the feetare put down flat, like a block, the term 'blocking lameness'is used. Sole bruising from constant landing on the toeshould be kept in mind when using hoof testers.

The first corrective shoe for the victim of the disease isone that has a roll toe. This results in the horse's foot`breaking over' more quickly, so there tends to be a slightshortening of stride. The heel of the shoe should bethickened so that it is about one and a half times the thick-ness of the toe of the shoe. The outer half of the sole sur-face of the shoe is chamfered to three-quarters of its thick-ness from the last nail hole back, and the inner edge of thesole surface is fined down so that it is no longer pressingon the wall of the foot. Cutting the nerve (neurectomy)should be discussed with your vet. The prognosis in allcases of navicular disease is unfavourable.

Neurecto

Cutting of a nerve, as a treatment for navicular disease.

Old Age

The first five years of a horse's life may be considere,-:equivalent to the first twenty years of our life. At seventeenyears of age, which probably represents fifteen years' work.most horses are past their physical best. Deterioration oftheir teeth probably prevents most horses from reaching aripe old age. In general, ponies are much longer lived thanhorses. Instances are on record of animals attaining the agefifty, and one is attested to have lived to sixty-three, but theaverage for ponies is probably thirty-five and for horsesthirty. As horses get very old it becomes more and moredifficult to keep weight on them and emaciation is the usualcause of death.

The following points will help keep the aged horse ingood health.

• Worm every three months.

• Have horse's teeth checked every six months.

• Rug the horse in cold weather.

• Give regular and gentle exercise.

• Hand-feed as soon as there is any sign of weight loss.Trim the feet every six weeks.

• Groom and pick out feet daily.

• Opening Up Behind

In this condition the anal sphincter relaxes, allowing air topass into the rectum. It usually occurs after a long trainingcampaign and is due to fatigue. The horse should be rested.Good results are also achieved with anabolic steroid injec-tions administered by the vet.

Open knees

Open knees is the term used to describe a horizontal de-pression at the top of the knee in immature horses. Horsesshould not be given hard work until this disappears. Ifworked, other conditions are more likely to occur such asshin soreness, carpitis, chipped bones in the knee, andtendon problems.

Patella locking (Upward fixation of patella)

Locked patella is a condition usually seen in horses that are very straight in the hindlegs. It occurs more frequently inhorses just out of the paddock in debility and poor con-dition in the initial stages of their training. The leg locksin a stiff, outstretched position. To unlock the leg, push thehorse backwards or alternatively wrap a soft rope aroundthe pastern and pull the leg forward. In less extreme casesthe patella slips in and out of position as the horse moves,and a clicking noise may be heard. The horse characteristi-cally drops its toe. Call your vet and discuss the problem,as it is likely to recur. Surgery is available.

Pedal bone fracture

This is a fracture in the lowermost bone of the leg. Thebone is within the hoof. The cause can be as simple asturning quickly or landing the wrong way. Horses sufferthis type of a fracture when racing. The signs are acutelameness and the sole of the foot is very sensitive to pres-sure. In most instances fractures of this nature will healreadily with a shoe that has a bar across the heel and fourclips equally spaced around the circumference of the hoofwall. This holds the foot together and the fracture in place.Keep the horse strictly confined in a box for eight weeks.It should then be rested for six months in a soft paddockand X-rayed to determine that healing is complete. If thefracture involves the joint and the horse is very valuable.surgery can be performed by a veterinary surgeon to com-press the fracture site with screws.

Pedal Osteitis

Pedal osteitis is an inflammatory condition, usually causedby repeated concussion, in the last bone of the foot (whichis enclosed by the hoof). It is one of the most commoncauses of lameness and is usually found in horses that workat a fast pace such as jumpers, racehorses and standard-breds. The inflammatory reaction in the foot begins to dis-solve the bone, causing tenderness. The horse may stepshort, particularly if it is made to run over loose gravel sothat the pain is accentuated. X-rays will confirm thediagnosis.

The most effective treatment is to turn the horse out onto soft land for six months. If the horse must continueworking, it should be shod with special light, wide shoes.which sit on the wall of the hoof to eliminate any pressureon the sole. The heel should be thick, and the toe half thethickness of the heel. The toe of the shoe should be moresquare than round and rolled at the bottom. This producesa slight rocker effect

Poisoning

Demulcents are frequently used in the treatment of poison-ing. These are drugs of a viscous character which protectmucous membranes from irritation—for example, gumacacia, purified honey, glycerine and starch.

Arsenic poisoning

Chronic arsenic poisoning affects the complete body haircoat. The usual symptoms are a long-haired coat, heavyscurf development and emaciation, even though the appe-tite is normal. The usual cause is over-use of arsenicaltonics. These tonics are used to stimulate the appetite ofhorses in full work. The usual method of diagnosis is ill-thrift after a time in training when arsenical tonics areknown to be used. Many horses make a slow recovery if thecumulative dose is not too high. Many others die unlessrestored to good condition by supplementary feeding on arsenical tonic with gradual weaning off the tonic as thecondition improves. Treatment with injectable organic ar-senic compound gives a dramatic response. During the ad-ministration of the tonic, the horse's body becomes depen-dent (addicted) and a sudden withdrawal causes collapse ofthe horse's metabolic system.

Copper poisoning

Chronic copper poisoning can occur where low molyb-denum levels enhance copper storage in pastures. Treat-ment is to use demulcents and iron filings which attract andfix the copper, or potassium ferrocyanide which producesa comparatively insoluble and harmless salt.

Acute cases have severe diarrhoea and colic with charac-teristic blue-green mucous membranes. Chronic cases havethirst, no appetite, red-coloured urine and jaundice. Ifdetected and treated early, the prognosis is good.

Lead poisoning

Acute lead poisoning is very rare in the horse. It can resultfrom pasturing near rifle ranges and picking up bulletspray, grazing on pastures near smelting furnaces, drinkingwater from lead piping recently installed and licking leadbatteries and paint. Symptoms include rigors, colic, grind-ing of the teeth and constipation, followed by diarrhoea.

Under no circumstances should oil be given in any formas this renders the lead more soluble. Large doses of epsomsalts-1 kilogram of epsom salts in 9 litres of water—shouldbe given, thus bringing about the formation of insolublelead sulphate. Prognosis depends on the amount ingestedbut is usually favourable if treated early.

Other types of poisoning include the ingestion of suchthings as rodenticides, insecticides, fumigants and moulds. In most cases there are nospecific antidotes and treatment consists of controllingsymptoms. Where the poison is known, contact your vet orthe poisons centre at a hospital.

Poisonous plants

As a general rule animals will not eat poisonous plants ifthere is plenty of other food available. Inadvertent poison-ing can happen—for example, poisoning from ragwort in-cluded in hay.

Acorn poisoning occurs in early spring when grass isscarce and the horse eats the new green leaves of the oaktree. Cases resemble impaction colic. Treatment consists oflarge doses of liquid paraffin.

Bracken poisoning can be caused by the green plants,and by bracken cut in the green state, then dried andstacked. The poison is an enzyme which destroys vitaminB1 and is cumulative. There is progressive loss of con-dition, a general unthrifty appearance and a slow pulse.The appetite remains fairly good but the horse loses itsrotund belly and becomes tucked-up and hollow in theflanks. Treat with repeated injections of vitamin B1.

A utumn crocus or meadow saffron will poison horses ifthey eat the leaves in the spring. The symptoms are ab-dominal pain, violent purgation and straining. The onlytreatment is using demulcents to soothe the bowels.

Privet poisoning causes a loss of power in the hind-quarters, the mucous membranes become congested, andthe pupils are dilated. Death occurs in thirty-six to forty-eight hours. Symptoms of colic and unsteadiness in the gaitare common. Treatment is to relieve the horse of the colicand treat the horse symptomatically. Horses usually dievery quickly if they have taken a reasonable dose of privet.

Ragwort poisoning usually follows the ingestion of hayharvested with ragwort. The common symptoms are colicwith subsequent death at variable periods up to a few days.In the chronic case there is a loss of condition, loss of appe-tite, dullness, the gait is staggering and there is consti-pation, or sometimes diarrhoea. Because the conditionaffects the liver, mucous membranes are pale and may be jaundiced. There is no satisfactory treatment.

Vetch can also induce liver damage in the horse and thehorse will be sensitive to sunlight.

Yew is by far the commonest form of plant poisoningencountered in Great Britain. All parts of the tree arepoisonous. The alkaloid taxine is the active principle andoccurs in the leaves of all species but in only a small pro-portion in the berries. Horses will eat yew at any time, andcases of yew poisoning usually occur when straying frompastures or eating overhanging branches. The alkaloid israpidly absorbed and exercises its chief effect on the heart.Symptoms—rarely observed, because the animal is usuallyalready dead when found—are trembling, difficulty inbreathing, collapse, and then death within five minutes.Treatment must of course be immediate. Purgatives anddemulcents are indicated and stimulants such as largequantities of strong coffee should be given frequently. It isbest if purgatives are given by injection to ensure a quickaction. The heart's action should be supported by injectionsof adrenalin.

Walkabout disease (Kimberley horse disease) is commonin north-western Australia and the Northern Territory. Itis due to ingestion of certain native plants restricted toareas with low river banks and flats which are subject toperiodic flooding. Cases are seen mainly in the wet seasonand involve a loss of weight, depression alternating withperiods of excitement, and compulsive walking. There is notreatment and the prognosis is poor.

Birdsville horse disease is seen in south-western Queens-land and central Australia. It is usually seen in summer inaverage seasons about six weeks after rain. It is due to theingestion of Indigophera; the minimum toxic amount is 4kilograms per day for at least two weeks. The symptomsare rapid and extreme loss of weight, loss of appetite, de-pression, sleepiness and toe dragging. There is no treat-ment, but an animal may recover completely if it is onlymildly affected.

Coastal ataxia is seen along a 450-kilometre wide stripof the central Queensland coast in horses on overgrazedpaddocks in which Gomphrena has become the dominantplant. This is readily eaten by horses, but large quantitieshave to be eaten over a month or more for symptoms todevelop. Symptoms include dullness, loss of appetite, sway-ing of the hindquarters and dragging of the toes, and feetplaced wide apart with swaying of the body from side toside. There are no known treatments; prognosis is poor.

Selenosis (also known as change-of-hoof disease, alkalidisease, blind staggers). Selenium toxicity is associated witheating plants called Morinda neptunia and Astragalus,which are found in various parts of the world. If the ani-mals are diagnosed early, treatment with sodium arseniteor arsenilic acid is useful. Selenosis usually affects themane, tail and hooves. The horse has a stilted gait withunnatural stance. The mane and tail hairs fall out and thereis a transverse separation of the wall of the hoof at thecoronary band. Acute cases may slough the hooves.

The list of poisons and poison plants is never ending.Contact your vet or local Department of Agriculture formore comprehensive lists.

Poll evil

Poll evil and fistulous withers are similar conditions whichaffect separate regions. Both are caused by a physical in-jury to a bony prominence—either the poll at the top of thehead or the withers. Ultimately an infection is set up whichleads to a deep-seated death of tissues and the develop-ment of a constant pussy sinus. Poultices or antiphlogistineshould be applied to the area. Once sinus formation is pres-ent, culture the organism and determine which antibiotic touse. Usually these conditions require surgical eradication of the dead tissue before the sinus will clear up.

Pot-belly

A sign indicating worm infestation in the horse.

Proud flesh

Granulation tissue. Occurring on theit is one of the signs of habronema (stomach worntation.

Quittor

This is the term applied to a persistent, pussy sore openingat or near the coronet. The cause in most cases is directinjury such as being stepped on by another horse, thusinjuring the lateral cartilage. It may also arise in an indirectway following an infection within the hoof when the outletin the sole is obstructed and the pus moves upwards, fol-lowing the line of least resistance. This may be the resultof a puncture to the foot, a corn or a sandcrack.

Early cases of quittor will respond to irrigation of thetract with a 20 per cent silver nitrate solution, followed inten minutes by saline solution to neutralise the silver ni-trate. In chronic cases successful treatment depends uponremoval of the dead or infected tissue; in most cases thisinvolves surgery on the cartilage.

Rattles

`Rattles' is the name given to a young fapneumonia—in these cases, the chest develops aRattles is common on farms where there is a rouiproblem.

Rickets

Signs of rickets can occur in horses up to three yewbut foals between six months and twelve monthscommonly affected. In older horses demineralisaticbone can occur as a result of calcium or phodeficiencies.

Rickets in horses is primarily a disease of the erather than the joint itself. (The epiphysis is eitherthe joint and is the growth centre for the long bothritis of the knee, the pastern, and the fetlock aijoints may also occur. The arthritis of these jointsfollows stresses resulting from conformational charto rickets.

Rickets is a metabolic bone disease resultingdeficiency of any one or a combination of calciunphorus, vitamin D, vitamin C and/or vitamin Arations for horses that are high in protein and coprimarily of hay may contain practically no vitaVitamin A deficiency also causes a rough and hcoat. It is not uncommon for both young and adulto have pica appetite (chewing on fences, gates arobjects) when there is a deficiency of 'one or morabove elements. The clinical signs of rickets in tl-are deviation of the limbs, resulting in the knucklward of the fetlocks of the front and/or hindlimb:contraction of the flexor tendons. Phytic acid, four"and wheat, may interfere with the metabolism ofand aid in causing rickets when the horse is fedquantities of grain than necessary for normalThese conditions are particularly common in yearl 3 due -.:in ea:,calcigreate.7growtr_ings be ing pushed along to get them in top condition for sale.These animals are usually on high-protein, high-grain dietslikely to contain an excess of phosphorus

Ringbone

Ringbone is a new bone growth which may involve thearticular surfaces of the pastern or coffin joints or may sur-round the articular surfaces and interfere with overlyingtendons and structures causing lameness. It can be causedby wounds such as wire cuts or abrasions to the pasterns,or it may be due to a congenital abnormality. The treat-ment of the condition is usually unsuccessful, but it mayhelp the horse to be given anti-inflammatory agents. Cor-rective shoeing consists of shortening the toe and applyinga full roller motion shoe. The prognosis for ringbone in-volving the joints is poor. For ringbone outside the joints,prognosis is guarded

Roaring

This is a condition usually seen in thoroughbreds or hunt-ing horses and is only noticed at a very fast gait. The horsemakes a roaring noise because a paralysed vocal cord actsas a reed in the passage of wind through the larynx. Thismay act as an obstruction to the free passage of air andmake the horse breathless at speed. The condition can becorrected by surgery, but unless the animal is very valu-able, surgery is not recommended.

Runny eyes

Runny eyes may indicate infestation byhabronema

Ruptured bladder

Ruptured bladder occurs in the first thirty-six to seventy-two hours, with thefoal initially straining and then its abdomen beginning to swell. The foal failsto urinate. The mucous membranes become pale and the foal is unwillingto nurse. Some foals may show signs of blindness, while others convulse. Avet should be called immediately to perform surgery to save the foal.

Salivation

Excessive production of saliva may arise frominflammation of the mouth, abnormal conditions of theteeth and the presence of foreign bodies such as a stickcaught between the teeth. Paralysis of the pharynx, theoesophagus or the lips may prevent saliva being swallowedso that the horse drools. It is often seen in greedy horsesanticipating feed

Sandcrack

Sandcrack is a vertical crack or split in the wall of the hoof.Such cracks vary in length and depth, but true sandcrackextends from the upper border (coronet) to the lower bor-der of the wall. It begins at or near the coronet. Some sandcracks are so deep that they reach the sensitive tissues.These tissues may suffer direct injury, and foreign bodiessuch as grit or sand may gain access, causing the area tobecome infected. When this occurs, there is pain and thehorse may be very lame.

Small shallow cracks that extend upwards from the edgeof the hoof should not be ignored, but they usually causelittle trouble. They arise as a direct injury and in thesecases, the horn is usually dry and brittle. When a horse putsits weight on a foot affected with a sandcrack, the cracktends to open and shut, causing the split to extend. Anynew horn growth continues to split. Remedies are designedto stop further splitting of the hoof and allow a sandcrackto grow out. The simplest method is to rasp across the topof the split if it begins at the bottom of the wall. If the splitbegins at the coronet, rasp around the bottom. Othermethods include transfixing with a horizontal clenchedhorseshoe nail, filling with epoxy glue or plastic, and cor-rective shoeing using clips either side of the crack.

Seedy toe

Seedy toe is the formation of cavities between the outerwall of the hoof and the inner sensitive layers. It usuallyoccurs around the toe area, right at the edge of the sole andthe white line, but may occur anywhere between the toeand the heel. To correct this condition, allow the blacksmith to trim the foot back as far as possible. The cavityof the seedy toe should then be thoroughly cleaned out,disinfected with tincture of iodine and packed withstockholm tar. The growth of good new horn can bepromoted by rubbing a light blister around the coronet ofthe foot.

Sesamoid bone disorders

The sesamoids are two small bones at the rear of the fetlockjoint. They can be fractured in animals that perform vig-orous sports, such as racehorses or endurance horses. Amore common condition is sesamoiditis which is aninflammatory process around the top of the sesamoid dueto tearing of the suspensory ligament. In these cases theanimal should be rested and poultices applied to the joint.In the case of fractures the horse will need a twelve months'spell; seek the advice of a veterinary surgeon.

Shin soreness

This is a condition seen in young horses, usually yearlingsor two-year-olds, which are suddenly asked to perform gal-loping exercises. Work over excessively hard ground ex-acerbates the problem. The horse steps short in front, andif rubbed down the front of the cannon bone it reacts pain-fully. In the latter stages of shin soreness there may be aswelling about midway down the cannon bone. If the workis stopped, the condition will recede. Applications of poult-ices to the area will hasten a return to normal, but a spellof several months is essential. It is due to immaturity of thebones.

Shivering

This is generally regarded as a nervous disease. When thehorse lifts a hindleg, or moves backwards, the limb is sud- denly raised, semi-flexed and moved out away from thebody, shaking and shivering in suspension. It occurs some-times after diseases such as influenza, after strangles or asevere Tall-It:is seen irequently riaderrm violentsports such as polo and polocrosse, and sometimes in race-horses. Shivering is also seen in the initial stages of a feveror when the horse is cold, but this is natural, not a disease.There is no treatment for a true shiverer and the horse isregarded as unsound.

Sidebone

Forms in the external cartilages in the heel region. Flexibility ofthe heels is lost. The cartilages are enlarged and tender, withhardening which causes lameness.

Skin disorders

• Bacterial acne (Saddle boils, dermatitis, heat rash)

Commonly seen under the saddle-cloth, over the back, loinand rib cage or wherever harness has contact with thehorse's skin. It is frequently caused by dirty harness, andit affects sweaty and ungroomed horses kept in unhygienicconditions. They are small (1-2 mm) areas of raised skinwhich are extremely painful and hot. The sores usuallyhave a sticky yellow discharge and form scabs. This con-dition should not be confused with Queensland itch, flybite and food allergies. Harness from affected horsesshould be sterilised and a fresh saddle-cloth used for eachride. The condition is not infectious. The condition can becured by shampooing with an iodine shampoo for threeconsecutive days; recovery takes about seven days.

• Bursattee (Leeches, kunkers, Florida horse leech,phycomycosis, swamp cancer and equine granuloma)

This condition usually appears-on the legs and lower abdo-men, the head, the neck and the ribs. Is is caused by afungal-like organism. It appears as a chronic, granulatedwound covered with a mucoid discharge, draining fromone or several sinuses. Severe itchiness is present, and self-mutilation is common. It should be differentiated from sar-coid and wounds caused by parasitic larvae. Bursattee isbest treated by surgical excision of the lesions and twiceweekly intravenous sodium iodide injections for fourweeks.

• Cattle tick bites

Cattle tick bites are usually found on the legs and lowerportions of the body but can affect the horse all over. Theyleave small, swollen areas with raised hair. Infestation inlarge numbers will cause loss of condition. The horse maybite affected parts, causing self-mutilation. Remove tickswith your fingers or with tweezers. Spray the horse with0.025 per cent Dursban or 0.25 per cent Malathion(fortnightly) to prevent infestation.

• Dandruff

Dandruff is a condition in which the skin becomes scaly,and the coat dry and dirty. In some instances the skin be-comes reddened and the hair falls out. Dandruff may resultfrom lack of exercise and grooming.

Sweating should be induced by lungeing or riding, andthe animal should be thoroughly washed with a medicatedsoap or shampoo. It is essential to leave a medicated sham-poo in contact with the skin for at least fifteen to thirtyminutes. Then ensure that all of the soap is rinsed off andthe animal dried thoroughly. The animal's diet should include a generous quantity ofcarrots and 60 millilitres of linseed oil daily. The animalshould also be examined for worm infestation. Sometimes a course oftonics is useful.

• Equine coital exanthema

In equine coital exanthema (in the male horse) the penisand reflection of the prepuce or (in the female horse) theexternal skin and internal mucous membranes of the vulvaare affected with multiple discrete sores. The lesions firstappear as slight wounds or watery blisters which quicklychange to a yellowish dead type of ulcer. The cause is avirus. It is usually self-limiting, running its course in four-teen to twenty-eight days. Sexual rest is essential, as thedisease is highly contagious. There are no after-effects ofthe disease and it is not notifiable.

rritant dermatitis can appear on the surface of any part ofthe horse's body. Usually there is severe irritation with self-mutilation caused by biting or by rubbing the body sur-faces on fences. There are weeping areas. Generally thehair is roughened and the skin is hypersensitive to scratch-ing. The cause can be contact with irritant chemicals suchas Stockholm tar, kerosene or insecticides, mange andQueensland itch cures, or bacterial infection.

Shampoo the entire horse and wash all soap from thebody. Apply a 2.5 per cent lime sulphur wash to all affectedareas. Antibiotic corticosteroid ointments can be applied tolocal areas of dermatitis.

Lice frequent long-haired areas—manes and tails. Heavyinfestation may occur all over the body. It may occur asdistrict outbreaks transmitted by mutual grooming, birds orunhygienic harness. Usually there is intense itching and thehorse rubs the affected site vigorously. This is associatedwith loss of hair on the body and scrubbing of the hairs onthe mane and tail. Horses will sometimes bite the infestedareas. Self-trauma can make the bites look like Queenslanditch, mange or stable-fly bite. Clip the mane if possible andwash the horse with 0.5 per cent dieldrin solution or 0.1 percent DDT solution. Repeat in several days' time. Chorioptic mange with the typical hair loss and scurfing ofthe skin.

Mange in a horse is usually confined to the legs below theknee and hock, but in severe cases it may extend to thebelly and the inside of the front legs and groin. It is causedby a small mite. Affected areas become inflamed, the skinflakes and becomes cracked with inflammatory exudate.Horses stamp their feet, bite their legs, and rub their legswith their head.

The disease will transmit between horses on their harnessor grooming implements.

All of the affected areas should be scrubbed with 0.1 percent BHC once weekly for three weeks.

Hard lumps which develop around the anus and base ofthe tail indicate melanoma.

Melanoma (skin cancer) is usually found around the anusand (in the female) around the vulva' lips, under the lineof the tail, and on the underside of the tail. Isolated tu-mours under the skin may occur anywhere on the body.Melanoma is much more frequent in grey horses.

Surgical exc